What's in human blood? Although we don't tend to think of blood as a vast mixing bowl, new research by a scientist at the University of Alberta and others suggests that our blood contains more than 4,000 chemical components.
"Right now a medical doctor analyzing the blood of an ailing patient looks at something like 10 to 20 chemicals," said David Wishart, a biochemist who spent three years on the analysis. "We've identified 4,229 blood chemicals that doctors can potentially look at to diagnose and treat health problems."
Doctors look at blood chemicals or metabolites in order to diagnose such conditions as diabetes and kidney failure. Wishart led more than 20 other researchers at six institutions on the analysis. He called it, "the most complete chemical characterization of blood ever done."
Monday, 28 February 2011
Wednesday, 2 February 2011
CJD diagnosis just got easier
Test for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease raises hopes of speedier diagnosis.
Tiffany O'Callaghan
In prion diseases such as CJD, an isomer of a prion protein takes on an abnormal shape.
AP Photo/Professors Stanley Prusiner/Fred Cohen, University of California San Francisco Medical SchoolInvasive biopsy is currently the only sure way to diagnose the degenerative neurological condition Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (CJD). But a highly sensitive assay could change that, providing a fast, accurate alternative for early diagnosis of this rare but deadly condition.
In its most common form, known as sporadic CJD, the disease affects roughly one in a million people. Beginning in the 1990s, several cases of a variation of CJD known as vCJD were reported among people who had consumed beef from cows infected with another disease, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
The findings, published online in Nature Medicine1, also suggest that the assay — developed by microbiologist Ryuichiro Atarashi of Nagasaki University, Japan, and his team — could pave the way for the screening of broad sectors of the population.
CJD is a prion disease, in which an isomer of a common protein known as the prion protein (PrP) takes on an abnormal shape and becomes an infectious variant called PrPSc. This variant is thought to trigger the subsequent malformation of other PrP proteins. Unlike their normal counterparts, PrPSc prions cannot be broken down, and instead accumulate — often clustering in brain tissue.
The pockets of abnormal tissue that result cause brain tissue to develop a sponge-like appearance, and because prion conditions can be spread by affected humans or animals, the diseases are often referred to as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Humans can be affected by several such conditions, while in addition to BSE in cows, there are several other such disorders among animals, including a condition called scrapie in sheep and hamsters.
No false positives
One problem that has plagued developers of non-biopsy diagnostic techniques is that it is often difficult to avoid false positives among samples taken from patients with neurodegenerative disorders other than CJD.
So Atarashi and his colleagues used a new assay known as a real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QUIC) assay. 'Quaking-induced' refers to in vitro shaking, which researchers believe helps to accelerate the reactions, enabling the assay to produce results more quickly.
The team tested cerebrospinal fluid samples from 18 people with CJD and 35 people with other neurodegenerative diseases. This pilot group produced no false positives, and CJD was correctly diagnosed more than 83% of the time.
The researchers compared these results with those obtained using an existing assay that tests for levels of a protein known as 14-3-3, which is a marker for sporadic CJD. When tested on patient samples, the accuracy of 14-3-3 was 72.2%, whereas the specificity was 85.7%.
In a subsequent blind trial on 30 cerebrospinal fluid samples from Australia, RT-QUIC showed 100% specificity, resulting in no false positives among the 14 control samples, and correct diagnoses of 87.5%. 14-3-3 was equally accurate, but the rate of false positives was much higher.
"This technique allows definitive ante-mortem confirmation of CJD," says Atarashi, adding that this is currently difficult because it demands the detection of PrPSc in patients' biopsy specimens.
Supersensitivity
The RT-QUIC assay is also extraordinarily sensitive — detecting the presence of harmful prions at very high dilutions — and speedy, yielding results within 48 hours.
Atarashi first began developing RT-QUIC as a researcher at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, in Montana. In 2008, he and his team successfully used it to screen cerebrospinal fluid taken from scrapie-infected hamsters2.
In December, Atarashi co-authored a paper reporting the efficacy of the RT-QUIC assay on nasal secretions and cerebrospinal fluid from hamsters with prion disorders3.
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Byron Caughey, chief of prion/TSE research at the Rocky Mountain lab and a co-author of the two hamster studies, is encouraged by the application of the assay to human cerebrospinal fluid samples. "Of course it will also be important to detect prion diseases in other species, but human diagnosis is of pre-eminent importance," Caughey says.
And although the next step is to replicate the findings in a much larger sample, the promise shown by RT-QUIC in analysing substances other than spinal fluid in hamsters suggests a potentially fertile area for future research in humans. If RT-QUIC could be used to screen blood samples, or cheek or nasal swabs, for example, it could open up the possibilities of much earlier diagnosis and more widespread screening of donated blood.
"The earlier you're able to detect the presence of an infection in humans or animals, the more chance you have of preventing transmission to others and treating the disease in those who are infected," Caughey says.
Tiffany O'Callaghan
In prion diseases such as CJD, an isomer of a prion protein takes on an abnormal shape.
AP Photo/Professors Stanley Prusiner/Fred Cohen, University of California San Francisco Medical SchoolInvasive biopsy is currently the only sure way to diagnose the degenerative neurological condition Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (CJD). But a highly sensitive assay could change that, providing a fast, accurate alternative for early diagnosis of this rare but deadly condition.
In its most common form, known as sporadic CJD, the disease affects roughly one in a million people. Beginning in the 1990s, several cases of a variation of CJD known as vCJD were reported among people who had consumed beef from cows infected with another disease, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
The findings, published online in Nature Medicine1, also suggest that the assay — developed by microbiologist Ryuichiro Atarashi of Nagasaki University, Japan, and his team — could pave the way for the screening of broad sectors of the population.
CJD is a prion disease, in which an isomer of a common protein known as the prion protein (PrP) takes on an abnormal shape and becomes an infectious variant called PrPSc. This variant is thought to trigger the subsequent malformation of other PrP proteins. Unlike their normal counterparts, PrPSc prions cannot be broken down, and instead accumulate — often clustering in brain tissue.
The pockets of abnormal tissue that result cause brain tissue to develop a sponge-like appearance, and because prion conditions can be spread by affected humans or animals, the diseases are often referred to as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Humans can be affected by several such conditions, while in addition to BSE in cows, there are several other such disorders among animals, including a condition called scrapie in sheep and hamsters.
No false positives
One problem that has plagued developers of non-biopsy diagnostic techniques is that it is often difficult to avoid false positives among samples taken from patients with neurodegenerative disorders other than CJD.
So Atarashi and his colleagues used a new assay known as a real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QUIC) assay. 'Quaking-induced' refers to in vitro shaking, which researchers believe helps to accelerate the reactions, enabling the assay to produce results more quickly.
The team tested cerebrospinal fluid samples from 18 people with CJD and 35 people with other neurodegenerative diseases. This pilot group produced no false positives, and CJD was correctly diagnosed more than 83% of the time.
The researchers compared these results with those obtained using an existing assay that tests for levels of a protein known as 14-3-3, which is a marker for sporadic CJD. When tested on patient samples, the accuracy of 14-3-3 was 72.2%, whereas the specificity was 85.7%.
In a subsequent blind trial on 30 cerebrospinal fluid samples from Australia, RT-QUIC showed 100% specificity, resulting in no false positives among the 14 control samples, and correct diagnoses of 87.5%. 14-3-3 was equally accurate, but the rate of false positives was much higher.
"This technique allows definitive ante-mortem confirmation of CJD," says Atarashi, adding that this is currently difficult because it demands the detection of PrPSc in patients' biopsy specimens.
Supersensitivity
The RT-QUIC assay is also extraordinarily sensitive — detecting the presence of harmful prions at very high dilutions — and speedy, yielding results within 48 hours.
Atarashi first began developing RT-QUIC as a researcher at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, in Montana. In 2008, he and his team successfully used it to screen cerebrospinal fluid taken from scrapie-infected hamsters2.
In December, Atarashi co-authored a paper reporting the efficacy of the RT-QUIC assay on nasal secretions and cerebrospinal fluid from hamsters with prion disorders3.
ADVERTISEMENT
Byron Caughey, chief of prion/TSE research at the Rocky Mountain lab and a co-author of the two hamster studies, is encouraged by the application of the assay to human cerebrospinal fluid samples. "Of course it will also be important to detect prion diseases in other species, but human diagnosis is of pre-eminent importance," Caughey says.
And although the next step is to replicate the findings in a much larger sample, the promise shown by RT-QUIC in analysing substances other than spinal fluid in hamsters suggests a potentially fertile area for future research in humans. If RT-QUIC could be used to screen blood samples, or cheek or nasal swabs, for example, it could open up the possibilities of much earlier diagnosis and more widespread screening of donated blood.
"The earlier you're able to detect the presence of an infection in humans or animals, the more chance you have of preventing transmission to others and treating the disease in those who are infected," Caughey says.
Monday, 17 January 2011
Blood Type O Associated With Less Risk for Heart Attack
Executive Health January 17, 2011, 06:00 EST text size: TTBlood Type O Associated With Less Risk for Heart Attack
Study finds gene that raises the danger and another, also tied to blood type, that might offer protectionBy Steven Reinberg
HealthDay Reporter
FRIDAY, Jan. 14 (HealthDay News) -- Researchers have simultaneously discovered a gene that seems to raise the risk of cardiovascular disease, while also noting that having the blood type O might guard against heart attack once arteries become clogged.
"Certain genes predispose to heart artery plaque build-up, whereas different genes lead to heart attack when you already have plaque build-up," said study author Dr. Muredach P. Reilly, an associate professor of medicine at the Cardiovascular Institute of the University of Pennsylvania.
One of the more heart-protective genes also helps direct people to have type O blood, the team reported.
The study suggests the multifaceted relationship between genetics and cardiovascular health, Reilly said. "Not all genes for heart disease are equal and therefore have to be used differently in new treatments for heart disease and when assessing risk of heart disease," he said.
The report is published in the Jan. 15 online edition of The Lancet.
For the study, Reilly's team compared almost 13,000 people with coronary artery disease against almost 7,400 people who did not have the condition.
And to hone in on specific genes that might play a role in heart attacks, they compared about 5,800 people with coronary artery disease who had had a heart attack with more than 3,600 people who had coronary artery disease but had never had a heart attack.
Using this method, Reilly's group identified a new gene called ADAMTS7, which was associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease.
And in the analysis specific to heart attack, they also found an association between blood type and the risk for heart attacks.
Specifically, the gene that makes people have blood type O also protects them from heart attacks, the researchers explained.
Blood is classified as ABO, with eight possible types, determined by the antigens they carry. Type O is know as the universal red cell donor.
"Therapies that modify ADAMTS7 and blood typing may be useful for heart disease, but are likely to work in different ways and different people," Reilly said.
"This concept speaks to future advances in personalized medicine and heart disease treatments. In addition, blood groups might be simple, if crude, indicators of heart attack risk or protection," he said.
But one expert cautioned that while blood type O may offer some protection from heart attack in people with coronary artery disease, that doesn't mean that your blood type alone will spare you from cardiovascular trouble.
"Individuals with blood type O should be just as vigilant about preventing heart disease and stroke as those of other blood types," said Dr. Gregg Fonarow, a professor of cardiology at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Dr. Luca A. Lotta, co-author of accompanying editorial from the Angelo Bianchi Bonomi Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Luigi Villa Foundation, University of Milan, said the findings "increase our knowledge of the DNA sequences that predispose individuals to develop atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction."
However, there is no direct and immediate clinical application for the findings, she added.
"But, they may lead in the future to the identification of previously unrecognized disease mechanisms and, potentially, to the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for these common and severe diseases," Lotta said.
Fonarow noted that, "it is well-established that there are genetic components to the risk of developing coronary atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction."
However, studies have not shown that genetic testing improves risk stratification or has clinical value in determining which treatment should be given over standard care, he said.
More information
For more information on genes and heart disease, visit the American Heart Association.
SOURCES: Muredach P. Reilly, MBBCH, associate professor, medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Luca A. Lotta, M.D., Angelo Bianchi Bonomi Hemophia and Thrombosis Center, Luigi Villa Foundation, University of Milan; Gregg Fonarow, M.D., American Heart Association spokesman and professor, cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Jan. 15, 2011, The Lancet, online
Study finds gene that raises the danger and another, also tied to blood type, that might offer protectionBy Steven Reinberg
HealthDay Reporter
FRIDAY, Jan. 14 (HealthDay News) -- Researchers have simultaneously discovered a gene that seems to raise the risk of cardiovascular disease, while also noting that having the blood type O might guard against heart attack once arteries become clogged.
"Certain genes predispose to heart artery plaque build-up, whereas different genes lead to heart attack when you already have plaque build-up," said study author Dr. Muredach P. Reilly, an associate professor of medicine at the Cardiovascular Institute of the University of Pennsylvania.
One of the more heart-protective genes also helps direct people to have type O blood, the team reported.
The study suggests the multifaceted relationship between genetics and cardiovascular health, Reilly said. "Not all genes for heart disease are equal and therefore have to be used differently in new treatments for heart disease and when assessing risk of heart disease," he said.
The report is published in the Jan. 15 online edition of The Lancet.
For the study, Reilly's team compared almost 13,000 people with coronary artery disease against almost 7,400 people who did not have the condition.
And to hone in on specific genes that might play a role in heart attacks, they compared about 5,800 people with coronary artery disease who had had a heart attack with more than 3,600 people who had coronary artery disease but had never had a heart attack.
Using this method, Reilly's group identified a new gene called ADAMTS7, which was associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease.
And in the analysis specific to heart attack, they also found an association between blood type and the risk for heart attacks.
Specifically, the gene that makes people have blood type O also protects them from heart attacks, the researchers explained.
Blood is classified as ABO, with eight possible types, determined by the antigens they carry. Type O is know as the universal red cell donor.
"Therapies that modify ADAMTS7 and blood typing may be useful for heart disease, but are likely to work in different ways and different people," Reilly said.
"This concept speaks to future advances in personalized medicine and heart disease treatments. In addition, blood groups might be simple, if crude, indicators of heart attack risk or protection," he said.
But one expert cautioned that while blood type O may offer some protection from heart attack in people with coronary artery disease, that doesn't mean that your blood type alone will spare you from cardiovascular trouble.
"Individuals with blood type O should be just as vigilant about preventing heart disease and stroke as those of other blood types," said Dr. Gregg Fonarow, a professor of cardiology at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Dr. Luca A. Lotta, co-author of accompanying editorial from the Angelo Bianchi Bonomi Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Luigi Villa Foundation, University of Milan, said the findings "increase our knowledge of the DNA sequences that predispose individuals to develop atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction."
However, there is no direct and immediate clinical application for the findings, she added.
"But, they may lead in the future to the identification of previously unrecognized disease mechanisms and, potentially, to the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for these common and severe diseases," Lotta said.
Fonarow noted that, "it is well-established that there are genetic components to the risk of developing coronary atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction."
However, studies have not shown that genetic testing improves risk stratification or has clinical value in determining which treatment should be given over standard care, he said.
More information
For more information on genes and heart disease, visit the American Heart Association.
SOURCES: Muredach P. Reilly, MBBCH, associate professor, medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Luca A. Lotta, M.D., Angelo Bianchi Bonomi Hemophia and Thrombosis Center, Luigi Villa Foundation, University of Milan; Gregg Fonarow, M.D., American Heart Association spokesman and professor, cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Jan. 15, 2011, The Lancet, online
Thursday, 13 January 2011
Artificial blood cells breakthrough
Jelly-like synthetic particles which mimic tiny cells in size and shape may be the first step towards developing truly artificial blood, scientists believe.
The "hydrogel" nanoparticles measuring just six micrometres (0.006 millimetres) across could also be used to fight cancer. They have the important property of being highly flexible, just like real red blood cells, and this means they remain longer in the circulation before being filtered out, and can slip through narrow capillaries or microscopic pores in organs.
Scientists are yet to test the particles' ability to perform functions such as transporting oxygen or carrying anti-cancer drugs. But early experiments indicate they have exciting medical potential. One possible application is unlimited supplies of man-made blood.
To date the most promising research on so-called synthetic blood has seen red blood cells created from stem cells.
A US company has developed a "pharming" process to produce blood cells from stem cells taken from umbilical cords which it hopes can be used in the field. Scientists have also succeeded in creating red blood cells from spare IVF embryos, but attempts to mimic nature with an artificial way of carrying oxygen around the body have not proved successful.
Lack of flexibility has been the major stumbling block. Real blood cells gradually become stiffer during their life and are eventually filtered out of the circulation when they can no longer bend enough to pass through pores in the spleen.
Professor Joseph DeSimone, one of the study investigators from the University of North Carolina, said: "Creating particles for extended circulation in the blood stream has been a significant challenge in the development of drug delivery systems from the beginning.
"Although we will have to consider particle deformability along with other parameters when we study the behaviour of particles in the human body, we believe this study represents a real game changer for the future of nanomedicine."
The research has been published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Commenting on the study, US professor Chad Mirkin, from Northwestern University in Chicago and one of US President Barack Obama's science advisers, said: "These findings are significant since the ability to reproducibly synthesise micron-scale particles with tuneable deformability that can move through the body unrestricted as do red blood cells, opens the door to a new frontier in treating disease."
The "hydrogel" nanoparticles measuring just six micrometres (0.006 millimetres) across could also be used to fight cancer. They have the important property of being highly flexible, just like real red blood cells, and this means they remain longer in the circulation before being filtered out, and can slip through narrow capillaries or microscopic pores in organs.
Scientists are yet to test the particles' ability to perform functions such as transporting oxygen or carrying anti-cancer drugs. But early experiments indicate they have exciting medical potential. One possible application is unlimited supplies of man-made blood.
To date the most promising research on so-called synthetic blood has seen red blood cells created from stem cells.
A US company has developed a "pharming" process to produce blood cells from stem cells taken from umbilical cords which it hopes can be used in the field. Scientists have also succeeded in creating red blood cells from spare IVF embryos, but attempts to mimic nature with an artificial way of carrying oxygen around the body have not proved successful.
Lack of flexibility has been the major stumbling block. Real blood cells gradually become stiffer during their life and are eventually filtered out of the circulation when they can no longer bend enough to pass through pores in the spleen.
Professor Joseph DeSimone, one of the study investigators from the University of North Carolina, said: "Creating particles for extended circulation in the blood stream has been a significant challenge in the development of drug delivery systems from the beginning.
"Although we will have to consider particle deformability along with other parameters when we study the behaviour of particles in the human body, we believe this study represents a real game changer for the future of nanomedicine."
The research has been published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Commenting on the study, US professor Chad Mirkin, from Northwestern University in Chicago and one of US President Barack Obama's science advisers, said: "These findings are significant since the ability to reproducibly synthesise micron-scale particles with tuneable deformability that can move through the body unrestricted as do red blood cells, opens the door to a new frontier in treating disease."
Sunday, 9 January 2011
Eat and Exercise for your Blood Type
Ever wondered why your training partner recovers from a workout faster than you, or why you need more fuel on the run than they do? It could be because you have a different blood type.
For more than a decade, runners worldwide have been subscribing to Dr Peter D’Adamo’s Blood Type Diet.
The American naturopathic physician and researcher is author of Eat Right For Your Type, a series of books about eating and exercising for your blood type. His theory? Each of the four basic blood types O, A, B and AB reacts differently to the lectins, or proteins, in the foods we eat.
His research shows each blood type is susceptible to certain diseases, physical vitality and emotional strength, and by adjusting your diet to suit your biological make up, you can live – and run – better.
But Dr Trent Watson, Dietitians Association of Australia spokesperson, says there is little scientific evidence to suggest such strict DNA traits are passed on.
“There are 50,000 to 100,000 genes contained in human DNA, so passing on the same DNA from one generation to the next is like rolling the genetic dice,” says the Newcastle sports dietitian.
Dr Watson suggests runners interested in taking up the Blood Type Diet seek advice from a dietitian to ensure you match nutrition and energy needs with your level of training.
TYPE 0
This is the most common of the four blood types and, according to Dr D’Adamo, your ancestral background shows you are hunters with an extroverted personality type.
He says Type Os can have a higher level of stomach acid than the other blood types, which can result in stomach irritation and ulcers – a theory supported by a 1993 Oxford University study. Dr D’Adamo’s research shows Type Os are more susceptible to arthritis, asthma and hay fever because the immune system is “environmentally intolerant”, especially to foods such as grains and potatoes, which can produce inflammatory reactions in your joints.
EAT RIGHT
Dr D’Adamo’s Type O diet focuses on protein particularly lean, organic meats, vegetables and fruits. He says it’s best to avoid wheat and dairy, which can trigger digestive problems. Caffeine and alcohol can also raise adrenaline and noradrenaline and should be avoided.
TYPE A
Type As are cultivators and more likely to have an introverted personality, according to Dr D’Adamo. You are thought to have high cortisol levels, a hormone made by the adrenal glands which helps maintain blood pressure, immune function and the body's anti-inflammatory processes. Too much of this hormone can lead to heart disease, cancer and diabetes, writes Dr D’Adamo.
EAT RIGHT
Type As are more naturally suited to a vegetarian diet of organic Mediterranean foods. Hopkins recommends avoiding dairy and red meat, because As are typically low in intestinal alkaline phosphatise, a stomach acid, which makes it difficult to digest and metabolise animal protein and fat.
TYPE B
More like nomads with an independent personality, Type Bs have a strong immune system and a tolerant digestive system, says Dr D’Adamo. “They tend to resist many of the severe chronic degenerative illnesses, or at least survive them better than the other blood types,” he writes. But Type B is more susceptible to autoimmune disorders, such as chronic fatigue, lupus and multiple sclerosis because of a reaction to foods that affect how your metabolic process works.
EAT RIGHT
Dr D’Adamo says Type Bs are generally capable of digesting either animal proteins or carbohydrates. But, he says, it’s best to avoid chicken, which contains a lectin in its muscle tissue that can attack the bloodstream. He also recommends avoiding wheat, buckwheat, lentils, tomatoes, peanuts and sesame seeds. “Each of these foods affect the efficiency of your metabolic process, resulting in fatigue, fluid retention and hypoglycemia – a severe drop in blood sugar after eating,” he writes.
TYPE AB
This is the rarest blood type, carried by just two to five per cent of the population. Known for an intuitive personality, Dr D’Adamo says Type ABs are the most biologically complex because group because they combine elements of both blood types. Like Type As, Dr D’Adamo says ABs immune system can be more susceptible to heart disease, cancer and anaemia when under stress.
EAT RIGHT
According to Dr D’Adamo Type AB has Type A’s low levels of stomach acid, but Type B’s adaptation to meats. “Therefore, you lack enough stomach acid to metabolise them efficiently and the meat you eat tends to get stored as fat,” he writes. Hopkins says he has more energy when he eats the right foods including plenty of green vegetables, seafood, dairy and tofu. Dr D’Adamo recommends type ABs avoid smoked or cured meats because they can cause stomach cancer in people with low levels of stomach acid.
For more than a decade, runners worldwide have been subscribing to Dr Peter D’Adamo’s Blood Type Diet.
The American naturopathic physician and researcher is author of Eat Right For Your Type, a series of books about eating and exercising for your blood type. His theory? Each of the four basic blood types O, A, B and AB reacts differently to the lectins, or proteins, in the foods we eat.
His research shows each blood type is susceptible to certain diseases, physical vitality and emotional strength, and by adjusting your diet to suit your biological make up, you can live – and run – better.
But Dr Trent Watson, Dietitians Association of Australia spokesperson, says there is little scientific evidence to suggest such strict DNA traits are passed on.
“There are 50,000 to 100,000 genes contained in human DNA, so passing on the same DNA from one generation to the next is like rolling the genetic dice,” says the Newcastle sports dietitian.
Dr Watson suggests runners interested in taking up the Blood Type Diet seek advice from a dietitian to ensure you match nutrition and energy needs with your level of training.
TYPE 0
This is the most common of the four blood types and, according to Dr D’Adamo, your ancestral background shows you are hunters with an extroverted personality type.
He says Type Os can have a higher level of stomach acid than the other blood types, which can result in stomach irritation and ulcers – a theory supported by a 1993 Oxford University study. Dr D’Adamo’s research shows Type Os are more susceptible to arthritis, asthma and hay fever because the immune system is “environmentally intolerant”, especially to foods such as grains and potatoes, which can produce inflammatory reactions in your joints.
EAT RIGHT
Dr D’Adamo’s Type O diet focuses on protein particularly lean, organic meats, vegetables and fruits. He says it’s best to avoid wheat and dairy, which can trigger digestive problems. Caffeine and alcohol can also raise adrenaline and noradrenaline and should be avoided.
TYPE A
Type As are cultivators and more likely to have an introverted personality, according to Dr D’Adamo. You are thought to have high cortisol levels, a hormone made by the adrenal glands which helps maintain blood pressure, immune function and the body's anti-inflammatory processes. Too much of this hormone can lead to heart disease, cancer and diabetes, writes Dr D’Adamo.
EAT RIGHT
Type As are more naturally suited to a vegetarian diet of organic Mediterranean foods. Hopkins recommends avoiding dairy and red meat, because As are typically low in intestinal alkaline phosphatise, a stomach acid, which makes it difficult to digest and metabolise animal protein and fat.
TYPE B
More like nomads with an independent personality, Type Bs have a strong immune system and a tolerant digestive system, says Dr D’Adamo. “They tend to resist many of the severe chronic degenerative illnesses, or at least survive them better than the other blood types,” he writes. But Type B is more susceptible to autoimmune disorders, such as chronic fatigue, lupus and multiple sclerosis because of a reaction to foods that affect how your metabolic process works.
EAT RIGHT
Dr D’Adamo says Type Bs are generally capable of digesting either animal proteins or carbohydrates. But, he says, it’s best to avoid chicken, which contains a lectin in its muscle tissue that can attack the bloodstream. He also recommends avoiding wheat, buckwheat, lentils, tomatoes, peanuts and sesame seeds. “Each of these foods affect the efficiency of your metabolic process, resulting in fatigue, fluid retention and hypoglycemia – a severe drop in blood sugar after eating,” he writes.
TYPE AB
This is the rarest blood type, carried by just two to five per cent of the population. Known for an intuitive personality, Dr D’Adamo says Type ABs are the most biologically complex because group because they combine elements of both blood types. Like Type As, Dr D’Adamo says ABs immune system can be more susceptible to heart disease, cancer and anaemia when under stress.
EAT RIGHT
According to Dr D’Adamo Type AB has Type A’s low levels of stomach acid, but Type B’s adaptation to meats. “Therefore, you lack enough stomach acid to metabolise them efficiently and the meat you eat tends to get stored as fat,” he writes. Hopkins says he has more energy when he eats the right foods including plenty of green vegetables, seafood, dairy and tofu. Dr D’Adamo recommends type ABs avoid smoked or cured meats because they can cause stomach cancer in people with low levels of stomach acid.
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